Modernist impulse to feminise Jesus

Lara Mührenberg: In Late Antiquity, Christ is portrayed as 100 percent male

In Late Antiquity, Jesus Christ was often portrayed as a Roman god, a philosopher, or an emperor. There was no hint of femininity allowed. Today's reflections on Jesus Christ depict him differently: "An image of Christ in 2025 will be much more feminine than the ancient images," says archaeologist Lara Mührenberg.

How important is the body of Jesus?

Lara Mührenberg*: First of all, it is important to note that Christ has a body in pictorial representations from Late Antiquity. He is depicted in human form. Furthermore, his body doesn't actually play a central role in the earliest depictions of Christ that we know of. It is actually only there to show us the essence of Christ. This is surprising at first, because in our culture we are accustomed to images of Christ that strongly emphasize his physicality, especially in images of the Passion, where the tortured body plays a central role.

What did the historical Jesus likely look like?

Mührenberg: We don't know. The New Testament texts don't tell us anything about it either. A memory of his visual appearance is not recorded anywhere.

How was Jesus portrayed in late antiquity?

Mührenberg: The earliest depictions that have survived date back to the 3rd century. It is very unlikely that the Christians or the artists who created these images could still rely on oral traditions after such a long time.

A distinction must therefore be made between images of Jesus, that is, the historical figure, and depictions of Christ.

Mührenberg: That is very important, yes. The latter are always an expression of theological reflection. They don't show us what Christ looks like, but what Christ is like. In late antiquity, there wasn't yet a single, universally valid depiction of Christ, but rather different image types that appeared in parallel – and could, of course, also be intertwined.

"For example, Christ with his curly hair resembles the god Apollo."

Can you give me an example?

Mührenberg: The earliest depictions show Christ as a youthful miracle worker. From Roman imagery, which was very familiar to ancient Christians, motifs were adopted that were well suited to a divine miracle worker and healer. For example, Christ with his curly hair resembles the god Apollo. That's a good fit, too, because Apollo is not only divine, he is also a god of light and healing. When late ancient Romans saw such an image of Christ, they immediately understood that this was a god associated with healing and light. Depending on which aspects of Christ they wanted to emphasize, the imagery was adapted accordingly.

What depictions of Jesus are there?

Mührenberg: In ancient images, almost every detail has meaning. Clothing, for example, conveys a great deal of information. Christ wears the clothing of an ancient philosopher. This, of course, fits him perfectly, because, on the one hand, he is described as a teacher in the New Testament writings, and, on the other hand, Christian teachings were understood in antiquity – at least by its followers – as "true philosophy." When Christ also acquires a full beard and long, almost wild hair, this visually brings him even closer to images of philosophers. At the same time, however, he is also presented as a powerful deity – Jupiter, Asclepius, and Serapis are depicted this way. When figures from the imperial family also took a liking to the Christ cult in the early 4th century, another aspect is added: Christ is now adorned with motifs derived from imperial iconography. These include sitting on a throne, the color purple, and the nimbus, which we know today as the "halo."

"It helps if you study ancient imagery a little."

What role does his gender play in this?

Mührenberg: Christ's gender plays a crucial role, but in a completely different way than we would initially assume from our current perspective.

In what way?

Mührenberg: In late antique images, Christ is clearly portrayed as, if you will, 100 percent male. This is not only because the historical Jesus was certainly a man; it is also about conveying something about the essence of Christ. And in a way that viewers of the images immediately understood due to their cultural background.

How is masculinity reflected in these depictions?

Mührenberg: If you look at images of Christ with our contemporary Western understanding of "masculinity," you will immediately recognize some of them as "masculine" due to our cultural conditioning, but you won't understand other motifs or even misinterpret them. So, it helps to study ancient imagery a bit.

Can you elaborate on that?

Mührenberg: Christ is endowed with many motifs that were strongly associated with masculinity in antiquity. This includes, for example, the ability to perform miracles, because to do so requires power over the cosmos. Or the entire field of philosophy, because it is largely about self-control and overcoming passions. And the mighty beards of the paternal deities are, of course, just as masculine as imperial power, which must always be understood as military strength and dominion. In addition to these central motifs, Christ is further developed through many small details that demonstrate his masculinity: he is the active part, performing an action, he is the one who speaks, he moves calmly, he holds himself upright.

How did people imagine the development of gender at that time?

Mührenberg: Since the late modern period, it has been assumed that there are two sexes, biologically anchored, and to which certain characteristics are linked. However, following the theories of Simone de Beauvoir and later Judith Butler, our idea of ​​sex and gender has changed significantly in recent decades. This already shows us that "sex" is not a fixed entity and is not understood in the same way at all times and in every culture. According to ancient ideas, there are no strictly anatomically separate sexes. This is because the development of (biological and social) sex is closely linked to the bodily fluids, which, according to ancient ideas, determined the entire human being.

"This ratio is not static, but can change."

What role do these humors play in ancient thought?

Mührenberg: According to ancient thought, the ratio of these humors is responsible for virtually everything. For example, for which illnesses a person develops. It is also decisive for a person's gender: Depending on the ratio of the humors, a person has more female or more male components and falls somewhere on an imaginary scale between the poles of "total masculinity" and "total femininity." This ratio is not static, but can change, for example, due to lifestyle or simply age. Written sources from antiquity, both non-Christian and Christian, often report that a person's gender expression changed due to such circumstances.

How are power and masculinity related, and how is this reflected in depictions of Christ?

Mührenberg: The ancient idea of ​​"gender" seems very egalitarian at first glance, perhaps almost modern – but unfortunately, it wasn't. In ancient times, masculinity was always associated with perfection. The more masculine a person is, the higher their degree of perfection. Therefore, everything associated with masculinity is viewed positively, while everything associated with femininity is viewed negatively. A person who is 100 percent male is therefore perfect. And thus also possesses absolute power, because this power is also tied to it. Of course, only free citizens in Rome can "be a man" – all other people, such as women, children, barbarians, and slaves, do not fall into this category; they are all "non-masculine."

"Ancient men actively tried to actively promote their masculinity again and again."

What were men afraid of?

Mührenberg: For ancient men, the idea of ​​losing their masculinity was, of course, very terrible. That would have meant sliding down the downward slope toward femininity. That would have been unpleasant in itself, but it would also have involved a loss of power and exposed the person to ridicule from political opponents or even one's own wife. Ancient men therefore actively sought to emphasize their masculinity time and again, particularly by maintaining male virtues such as self-control, dignity, and manliness. But also by moving and speaking in a certain way, eating the right foods, and avoiding non-masculine practices during sexual intercourse.

Why did Jesus have to be portrayed as male?

Mührenberg: According to the ancient idea, a deity who has absolute power must also be 100 per cent male. That is also the reason why Christ was given so many masculine motifs in the paintings: only in this way could he be a powerful miracle worker, convincing teacher and ruler of the cosmos.

But it didn't stop at these depictions.

Mührenberg: That's true. But other aspects have been added, such as the suffering of the late medieval Christ or the kindness of Christ from today's children's Bibles. Depending on which aspects of Christ become important in the reflection on him at a particular time, the portrayal of Christ takes on a new shape. An image of Christ in 2025 will therefore inevitably be much more feminine than the ancient images.

*Lara Mührenberg is a research assistant in the Department of New Testament Studies, specialising in Greek and Roman antiquity, at the Faculty of Protestant Theology at the University of Bonn. In the publication "Wahrer Gott und wahrer Mann. Das Geschlecht Jesu in der Theologiegeschichte" (Herder Verlag, 2023), Mührenberg also published an article on this topic.

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